12 Sep 2026 - "Daily Current Affairs" Updates

Brent Crude and the Strait of Hormuz

Why in News: Brent crude crossed $100 per barrel on 9 September 2026, its highest level since July 2026, after the US destroyed five Iranian oil tankers and Iran said it struck about 10 ships near the Strait of Hormuz.

What is Crude Oil?

• Crude oil is a depletable, non-renewable mixture of hydrocarbons found mainly in liquid form in porous sedimentary rocks beneath the Earth's surface.

• It forms from marine organic matter buried under heat and pressure over millions of years.

• It also contains sulphur, nitrogen, oxygen and traces of metals and salts.

• According to the source, the largest proven reserves are in Venezuela, Saudi Arabia and Iran. Major producers are a different list: the USA, Saudi Arabia and Russia.

Sweet vs Sour Crude

• The terms 'sweet' and 'sour' refer to sulphur content.

• Sweet crude has low sulphur and is cheaper to refine.

• High sulphur is undesirable because it corrodes equipment, contributes to sulphur dioxide pollution and lowers the yield of high-value products.

• Brent is a light and sweet crude, which helps it command a premium.

Why Brent is a Global Benchmark

• Brent is named after the Brent oilfield in the North Sea between the UK and Norway.

• The modern Brent complex blends several North Sea crude streams.

• It prices up to two-thirds of internationally traded crude and serves as a benchmark for Europe, Africa and much of Asia.

• Its seaborne supply can be shipped easily to distant markets, unlike pipeline-constrained crudes.

• Its price is influenced by supply-demand conditions, geopolitics, production disruptions, OPEC+ decisions, inventories, the US dollar and broader economic trends.

Strait of Hormuz: Location

• The Strait of Hormuz lies between Iran to the north and the Arabian Peninsula to the south, including the UAE and Oman's Musandam exclave.

• At its narrowest point it is about 33 km wide.

• Shipping lanes are only around 3 km wide in each direction.

• It connects the Persian Gulf with the Gulf of Oman and then the Arabian Sea.

• It is the only sea route out of the Persian Gulf.

Why the Strait Matters

• About 20 million barrels of petroleum liquids pass through it each day.

• This is roughly 20% of global petroleum liquids consumption.

• It also carries about 20% of global LNG trade.

• It handles oil and gas exports from Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Iraq, Qatar, Bahrain, the UAE and Iran, mostly to Asian markets.

• The source notes that China is Iran's single largest oil customer.

Quick Recall

• Brent -> light, sweet crude and a major global benchmark.

• North Sea origin -> between the UK and Norway.

• Hormuz -> only sea exit from the Persian Gulf.

• At narrowest -> about 33 km wide.

• Energy significance -> about 20% of global petroleum liquids consumption and about 20% of global LNG trade.

Zimbabwe

Why in News: India's Lohum, a Noida-based critical-minerals firm, dispatched its first consignment of lithium ore from Zimbabwe's Matabeleland South Province on 9 September 2026, becoming the first Indian company to produce lithium from an overseas asset.

Basic Geography

• Zimbabwe is a landlocked republic in Southern Africa.

• Capital -> Harare, formerly Salisbury.

• It became independent in 1980.

• Neighbours: South Africa to the south, Botswana to the west, Zambia to the north and Mozambique to the east.

Lithium and Natural Resources

• Zimbabwe is described in the source as Africa's leading lithium producer.

• It has the continent's largest hard-rock lithium reserves.

• Important deposits include Bikita and Arcadia.

Rivers and Landmarks

• The Zambezi River forms the northern border with Zambia.

• The Limpopo River forms the southern border with South Africa.

• Victoria Falls on the Zambezi is a UNESCO World Heritage Site shared with Zambia.

• Lake Kariba, on the Zambezi, is one of the world's largest man-made reservoirs.

• Great Zimbabwe, the medieval stone city that gives the country its name, is also a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

Quick Recall

• Zimbabwe -> landlocked country in Southern Africa.

• Capital -> Harare.

• Neighbours -> South Africa, Botswana, Zambia, Mozambique.

• Key mineral -> lithium.

• Zambezi -> northern border; Limpopo -> southern border.

English in India and the Official Language Framework

Why in News: The Union Government told the Supreme Court that it 'has an issue' with treating English as an indigenous language of India.

How English Entered Indian Administration

• Macaulay's Minute on Indian Education was issued on 2 February 1835 by Thomas Babington Macaulay.

• It argued for English education and is associated with the 'downward filtration theory'.

• Governor-General Lord William Bentinck accepted the Minute and issued the English Education Act, 1835, making English the medium of higher education.

• In 1837, English replaced Persian as the language of administration and the courts.

• Wood's Despatch of 1854, called the 'Magna Carta of English education in India', created an education department, supported universities at Calcutta, Bombay and Madras, introduced grants-in-aid and supported English for higher education with vernacular languages at school level.

Eighth Schedule

• The Eighth Schedule lists languages officially recognised by the Constitution.

• It is linked to Part XVII, particularly Articles 344(1) and 351.

• The Schedule currently contains 22 languages; it originally contained 14.

• Sindhi was added by the 21st Amendment, 1967.

• Konkani, Manipuri and Nepali were added by the 71st Amendment, 1992.

• Bodo, Dogri, Maithili and Santhali were added by the 92nd Amendment, 2003, which came into force in 2004.

• English has never been included in the Eighth Schedule.

• However, English continues as an associate official language of the Union under the Official Languages Act, 1963.

• The Constitution lays down no formal criteria for inclusion in the Eighth Schedule.

• The Pahwa Committee (1996) and Sitakant Mahapatra Committee (2003) suggested criteria, but no formal set has been adopted.

Official Language Provisions: Articles 343-351

• Article 343(1): Hindi in Devanagari script is the official language of the Union; numerals use the international form of Indian numerals.

• Article 343(2): English was to continue for Union purposes for 15 years from commencement of the Constitution.

• Article 343(3): Parliament may provide by law for continued use of English beyond 15 years.

• Article 344: Provides for an Official Language Commission and a Parliamentary Committee on Official Language with 30 members: 20 from Lok Sabha and 10 from Rajya Sabha.

• Article 345: A State Legislature may adopt a language in use in the State, or Hindi, as its official language.

• Article 346: Deals with official language for communication between States and between a State and the Union.

• Article 347: The President may direct recognition of a language spoken by a substantial proportion of a State's population.

• Article 348(1): English continues in the Supreme Court and High Courts and for authoritative texts of laws unless Parliament provides otherwise.

• Article 348(2): A Governor, with prior Presidential consent, may authorise Hindi or the State's official language in High Court proceedings, but judgments, decrees and orders must remain in English.

• Article 349: Provides a special procedure for certain language-related laws during the first 15 years.

• Article 350: Right to submit representations for grievance redress in any language used in the Union or State.

• Article 350A: Mother-tongue instruction at the primary stage for children of linguistic minorities.

• Article 350B: Special Officer for Linguistic Minorities, appointed by the President.

• Article 351: Directs the Union to promote the spread and development of Hindi.

Official Language Commission and Official Languages Act

• The President constitutes the Official Language Commission under Article 344 after five years from the commencement of the Constitution and thereafter every ten years.

• The first Commission was appointed on 7 June 1955 by President Rajendra Prasad and chaired by B. G. Kher.

• The Official Languages Act, 1963 was enacted under Article 343(3) to allow English to continue alongside Hindi beyond 1965.

• The 1967 amendment made continuation of English indefinite unless every non-Hindi State Legislature and both Houses of Parliament resolve otherwise.

Three-Language Formula

• The idea was first mooted by the University Education Commission (1948-49, Radhakrishnan).

• The Education Commission (1964-66, Kothari Commission) recommended a modified version.

• It was formally adopted in the National Policy on Education, 1968.

• For Hindi-speaking States: Hindi, English and a modern Indian language, preferably a southern language.

• For non-Hindi-speaking States: regional language, Hindi and English.

• NEP 2020 retains the formula with greater flexibility, says no language should be imposed on any State, requires at least two of the three languages to be native to India, applies to government and private schools, and stresses mother-tongue/regional-language medium at least up to Grade 5.

Quick Recall

• English replaced Persian in administration -> 1837.

• Eighth Schedule -> 22 languages; English is not one of them.

• Union official language -> Hindi in Devanagari under Article 343.

• English continues -> Official Languages Act, 1963.

• High Courts and Supreme Court -> English under Article 348 unless Parliament provides otherwise.